This study aims to elucidate the dynamic evolution mechanism of the fracturing fracture system during the exploration and development of complex oil and gas reservoirs.By integrating methods of rock mechanical testing...This study aims to elucidate the dynamic evolution mechanism of the fracturing fracture system during the exploration and development of complex oil and gas reservoirs.By integrating methods of rock mechanical testing,logging calculation,and seismic inversion technology,we obtained the current insitu stress characteristics of a single well and rock mechanical parameters.Simultaneously,significant controlling factors of rock mechanical properties were analyzed.Subsequently,by coupling hydraulic fracturing physical experiments with finite element numerical simulation,three different fracturing models were configured:single-cluster,double-cluster,and triple-cluster perforations.Combined with acoustic emission technology,the fracture initiation mode and evolution characteristics during the loading process were determined.The results indicate the following findings:(1)The extension direction and length of the fracture are significantly controlled by the direction of the maximum horizontal principal stress.(2)Areas with poor cementation and compactness exhibit complex fracture morphology,prone to generating network fractures.(3)The interlayer development of fracturing fractures is controlled by the strata occurrence.(4)Increasing the displacement of fracturing fluid enlarges the fracturing fracture length and height.This research provides theoretical support and effective guidance for hydraulic fracturing design in tight oil and gas reservoirs.展开更多
The casing damage has been a big problem in oilfield production. The current detection methods mostly are used after casing damage, which is not very effective. With the rapid development of China's offshore oil i...The casing damage has been a big problem in oilfield production. The current detection methods mostly are used after casing damage, which is not very effective. With the rapid development of China's offshore oil industry, the number of offshore oil wells is becoming larger and larger. Because the cost of offshore oil well is very high, the casing damage will cause huge economic losses. What's more, it can also bring serious pollution to marine environment. So the effective methods of detecting casing damage are required badly. The accumulation of stress is the main reason for the casing damage. Magnetic anisotropy technique based on counter magnetostriction effect can detect the stress of casing in real time and help us to find out the hidden dangers in time. It is essential for us to prevent the casing damage from occurring. However, such technique is still in the development stage. Previous studies mostly got the relationship between stress and magnetic signals by physical experiment, and the study of physical mechanism in relative magnetic permeability connecting the stress and magnetic signals is rarely reported. The present paper uses the ANSYS to do the three-dimensional finite element numerical simulation to study how the relative magnetic permeability works for the oil casing model. We find that the quantitative relationship between the stress' s variation and magnetic induction intensity's variation is: Δδ =K* ΔB, K = 8.04×109, which is proved correct by physical experiment.展开更多
The physiological structure of the upper respiratory tract is complex and varies with each individual,and the circulating air has turbulent performance.In this paper,based on computed tomography(CT)medical images publ...The physiological structure of the upper respiratory tract is complex and varies with each individual,and the circulating air has turbulent performance.In this paper,based on computed tomography(CT)medical images published online and the three-dimensional(3D)printing technology,a 3D model of the human upper respiratory tract was reconstructed and an experimental device of the upper respiratory tract was made.We implemented the respiratory experiment and measured the flow rate,and a scale-adaptive κ-ω model is applied for numerical simulation,the results are in good agreement.The flow field during respiratory was analyzed by coronal velocity cross section,vortex line and particle tracks.We found that the relatively strong shear effect happens at the areas of nasal valve and nasopharynx.In the middle and upper nasal tract,vortex line separation occurs and there is significant passage effect.The results indicate that SAS method is effective in studying upper respiratory airflow.展开更多
Based on the existing Land Surface Physical Process Models(Deardorff, Dickinson, LIU, Noilhan, Seller, ZHAO), a Comprehensive Land Surface Physical Process Model (CLSPPM) is developed by considering the different phys...Based on the existing Land Surface Physical Process Models(Deardorff, Dickinson, LIU, Noilhan, Seller, ZHAO), a Comprehensive Land Surface Physical Process Model (CLSPPM) is developed by considering the different physical processes of the earth's surface-vegetation-atmosphere system more completely. Compared with SiB and BATS, which are famous for their detailed parameterizations of physical variables, this simplified model is more convenient and saves much more computation time. Though simple, the feas...展开更多
The electrophysical property of saturated rocks is very important for reservoir identification and evaluation. In this paper, the lattice Boltzmann method （LBM） was used to study the electrophysical property of rock...The electrophysical property of saturated rocks is very important for reservoir identification and evaluation. In this paper, the lattice Boltzmann method （LBM） was used to study the electrophysical property of rock saturated with fluid because of its advantages over conventional numerical approaches in handling complex pore geometry and boundary conditions. The digital core model was constructed through the accumulation of matrix grains based on their radius distribution obtained by the measurements of core samples. The flow of electrical current through the core model saturated with oil and water was simulated on the mesoscopic scale to reveal the non-Archie relationship between resistivity index and water saturation （I-Sw）. The results from LBM simulation and laboratory measurements demonstrated that the I-Sw relation in the range of low water saturation was generally not a straight line in the log-log coordinates as described by the Archie equation. We thus developed a new equation based on numerical simulation and physical experiments. This new equation was used to fit the data from laboratory core measurements and previously published data. Determination of fluid saturation and reservoir evaluation could be significantly improved by using the new equation.展开更多
To analyze the overlying strata movement law of recovering room mining standing pillars with solid backfilling.Physical simulation experiments with sponge and wood as the backfilling simulation material were tested.Th...To analyze the overlying strata movement law of recovering room mining standing pillars with solid backfilling.Physical simulation experiments with sponge and wood as the backfilling simulation material were tested.The results show that:(i) The covering-rock mechanics of the overly strata comes from "two-arch structures + hinged girder + bend beam" to "backfilling material + hinged girder + bent beam" by increasing the fill ratio from 0%to 85%,the beginning of overlying strata movement appears later and the total duration of subsidence velocity increased from zero to the highest value increases.The trend of "single polarization" of the subsidence velocity curves becomes noticeable and the velocity variation trend becomes stable,(ii) The equiponderate aeolian sand was added to improve the anti-pressure ability of the loess,and the corresponding ground processing & transportation system was designed.展开更多
With the combination of a new theoretical formula, physical simulation experiments, the technology of artificial neural network and database, an intelligent system for the prediction of sheet metal drawing capability ...With the combination of a new theoretical formula, physical simulation experiments, the technology of artificial neural network and database, an intelligent system for the prediction of sheet metal drawing capability is constructed for the first time. A modified criterion for sheet metal drawing capability is proposed in this paper, namely, the Technological Limiting Drawing Ratio, TLDR = f(R, n, s, t, F, μ,r_d,r_p…). Based on the studies of other scholars, a new formula is derived to predict the TLDR in this paper. Then a series of orthogonal physical simulation experiments are designed to investigate the effect of technological parameters on the TLDR, and the results are analyzed in the paper. Then the predicting system is constructed with the combination of the theoretical formula, orthogonal experiments, the technology of artifocial neural network and database. The predicted results show good agreements with experimental data, so it can be used to avoid the blindness in the selection of sheet metal before stamping. The system operates under the Windows operating system, and it supports the mechanism of Client/Server as well as Intranet, so the system has high engineering value.展开更多
In the university physics teaching, the application of virtual simulation experiment technology can provide reliable technical support for teachers. If teachers only use the traditional oral teaching method, the teach...In the university physics teaching, the application of virtual simulation experiment technology can provide reliable technical support for teachers. If teachers only use the traditional oral teaching method, the teaching effect is not ideal. Because the physics subject contains many experiments, if students cannot watch the experiment process, students thinking ability and practical ability will be affected. However, under the constraints of teaching conditions, some physics experiments cannot be carried out. With the help of virtual simulation experiment technology, under the virtual simulation experiment, the simulation degree is high and the operation is relatively simple, also has the advantage of safety and risk-free, to compensate for the deficiency of the traditional teaching methods. To a certain extent, also can innovate teaching methods, students can fully observe the physical phenomenon operation process, help students to master the corresponding knowledge. This paper expounds the characteristics of virtual simulation experiment and the application principles of virtual simulation technology in university physics experiment teaching, and proposes the application strategy of this technology.展开更多
The coefficient of rolling friction is an important physical property of a maize particle. It is difficult to obtain the value of this coefficient because of the irregular shape of maize particles. This paper describe...The coefficient of rolling friction is an important physical property of a maize particle. It is difficult to obtain the value of this coefficient because of the irregular shape of maize particles. This paper describes an approach that combines the discrete-element method （DEM） and a physical test to determine the coefficient of rolling friction of irregularly shaped maize particles. A novel test platform was used to obtain the maize particle＇s coefficient of restitution and the coefficient of static friction. EDEM software （DEM- Solutions, United Kingdom） was used to simulate the accumulation of maize particles on particles and on a zincified plate. The golden-section method was used to determine the range of the maize particle＇s coefficient of roiling friction. A single-factor test was used to determine the relationship between the maize particle＇s coefficient of rolling friction and their angle of repose. The results obtained from the EDEM simulation were compared with physical test results to determine the intergranular coefficient of rolling friction and the coefficient of roiling friction between maize particles and the zincified plate. Our study demonstrates that the angle of repose increases linearly with the coefficient of rolling friction of maize particles. The effect of the coefficient of rolling friction on the particle movement is studied. The physical verification test indicates that the obtained rolling friction of the maize particles is accurate. The findings of this paper provide a theoretical basis for maize-processing machine design and a discrete-element studv of the motion of maize particles inside such machines.展开更多
Based on the basic principles of atmospheric boundary layer and plant canopy micrometeorology, a forest underlying surface land surface physical process model and a two-dimensional atmospheric boundary layer numerical...Based on the basic principles of atmospheric boundary layer and plant canopy micrometeorology, a forest underlying surface land surface physical process model and a two-dimensional atmospheric boundary layer numerical model are developed and numerical simulation experiments of biosphere and physiological processes of vegetation and soil volumetric water content have been done on land surface processes with local climate effect. The numerical simulation results are in good agreement with realistic observations, which can be used to obtain reasonable simulations for diurnal variations of canopy temperature, air temperature in canopy, ground surface temperature, and temporal and spatial distributions of potential temperature and vertical wind velocity as well as relative humidity and turbulence exchange coefficient over non-homogeneous underlying surfaces. It indicates that the model developed can be used to study the interaction between land surface process and atmospheric boundary layer over various underlying surfaces and can be extended to local climate studies. This work will settle a solid foundation for coupling climate models with the biosphere.展开更多
The ultra-low porosity and permeability,as well as complex occurrence and transport state of shale reservoir make it possess special L-type production characteristic curve and complicated shale gas flow mechanism.To s...The ultra-low porosity and permeability,as well as complex occurrence and transport state of shale reservoir make it possess special L-type production characteristic curve and complicated shale gas flow mechanism.To solve the difficulty of collecting complete production data due to short production time and operation discontinuity,a full-diameter core physical simulation experiment on the full lifecycle production process of shale gas well depletion is conducted with the purpose of obtaining many important production data including complete pressure and daily gas output in the simulated production process of shale gas well.The experimental results show the production characteristic from simulation is consistent with those from gas well.Based on the simulation data,the critical desorption pressure(12 MPa)of core,free gas production(3820.8 mL),adsorbed gas production(2151.2 mL),the proportion of the daily gas production between free and absorbed gas under different time and formation pressure,as well as the production time and final recovery rate corresponding to abandoned pressure,can be determined accurately.Numerical inversion is carried out to calculate the production performance curve of shale gas well and predict the development effect of gas well based on well testing and similarity analysis of the dimensionless time between core experiment and gas well production.Finally,the permeability and the fracturing effect(fracture network density)as the keys to the effective development of shale gas reservoirs are proposed.The permeability is the fundamental factor and the fracturing technology is the major means.展开更多
In the course of the propagation of waves from the offshore to the nearshore zone, the wave may break due to the shoaling effect. Strong impact forces are observed when the breaking wave acts on the pier of the bridge...In the course of the propagation of waves from the offshore to the nearshore zone, the wave may break due to the shoaling effect. Strong impact forces are observed when the breaking wave acts on the pier of the bridge. This impact force might not only change the dynamic load pattern on the pier but also cause strong structural vibration, which may threaten the driving and structural safety of the bridge. Many studies have been carried out to study the issues in the aspect of wave flume experiment, numerical simulation, calculation of breaking wave force, and random vibration response of the structure. Considering the studies of breaking wave load on bridge piers are lack of systematic summaries, this paper presents a comprehensive and up-to-date literature review of breaking wave research and practice related to bridges. Firstly, a brief introduction is given, which includes recent cases of bridge failures caused by breaking waves. Then, both scientific and technical studies are reviewed, categorized into four aspects: experimental study, numerical simulation, analytical calculation of breaking wave force, and the structural response under breaking wave. Finally, Discussion is provided on four emerging ideas to investigate breaking wave forces on the pier from both science and engineering perspectives.展开更多
基金supported by the Major Scientific and Technological Projects of CNPC under grant ZD2019-183-006the National Science and Technology Major Project of China(2016ZX05014002-006)the National Natural Science Foundation of China(42072234)。
文摘This study aims to elucidate the dynamic evolution mechanism of the fracturing fracture system during the exploration and development of complex oil and gas reservoirs.By integrating methods of rock mechanical testing,logging calculation,and seismic inversion technology,we obtained the current insitu stress characteristics of a single well and rock mechanical parameters.Simultaneously,significant controlling factors of rock mechanical properties were analyzed.Subsequently,by coupling hydraulic fracturing physical experiments with finite element numerical simulation,three different fracturing models were configured:single-cluster,double-cluster,and triple-cluster perforations.Combined with acoustic emission technology,the fracture initiation mode and evolution characteristics during the loading process were determined.The results indicate the following findings:(1)The extension direction and length of the fracture are significantly controlled by the direction of the maximum horizontal principal stress.(2)Areas with poor cementation and compactness exhibit complex fracture morphology,prone to generating network fractures.(3)The interlayer development of fracturing fractures is controlled by the strata occurrence.(4)Increasing the displacement of fracturing fluid enlarges the fracturing fracture length and height.This research provides theoretical support and effective guidance for hydraulic fracturing design in tight oil and gas reservoirs.
基金supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(No.41174157)
文摘The casing damage has been a big problem in oilfield production. The current detection methods mostly are used after casing damage, which is not very effective. With the rapid development of China's offshore oil industry, the number of offshore oil wells is becoming larger and larger. Because the cost of offshore oil well is very high, the casing damage will cause huge economic losses. What's more, it can also bring serious pollution to marine environment. So the effective methods of detecting casing damage are required badly. The accumulation of stress is the main reason for the casing damage. Magnetic anisotropy technique based on counter magnetostriction effect can detect the stress of casing in real time and help us to find out the hidden dangers in time. It is essential for us to prevent the casing damage from occurring. However, such technique is still in the development stage. Previous studies mostly got the relationship between stress and magnetic signals by physical experiment, and the study of physical mechanism in relative magnetic permeability connecting the stress and magnetic signals is rarely reported. The present paper uses the ANSYS to do the three-dimensional finite element numerical simulation to study how the relative magnetic permeability works for the oil casing model. We find that the quantitative relationship between the stress' s variation and magnetic induction intensity's variation is: Δδ =K* ΔB, K = 8.04×109, which is proved correct by physical experiment.
基金supported by the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities of China (Grant 17LGJC41)
文摘The physiological structure of the upper respiratory tract is complex and varies with each individual,and the circulating air has turbulent performance.In this paper,based on computed tomography(CT)medical images published online and the three-dimensional(3D)printing technology,a 3D model of the human upper respiratory tract was reconstructed and an experimental device of the upper respiratory tract was made.We implemented the respiratory experiment and measured the flow rate,and a scale-adaptive κ-ω model is applied for numerical simulation,the results are in good agreement.The flow field during respiratory was analyzed by coronal velocity cross section,vortex line and particle tracks.We found that the relatively strong shear effect happens at the areas of nasal valve and nasopharynx.In the middle and upper nasal tract,vortex line separation occurs and there is significant passage effect.The results indicate that SAS method is effective in studying upper respiratory airflow.
基金National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 40275004)State Key Laboratory of Atmosphere Physics and Chemistry
文摘Based on the existing Land Surface Physical Process Models(Deardorff, Dickinson, LIU, Noilhan, Seller, ZHAO), a Comprehensive Land Surface Physical Process Model (CLSPPM) is developed by considering the different physical processes of the earth's surface-vegetation-atmosphere system more completely. Compared with SiB and BATS, which are famous for their detailed parameterizations of physical variables, this simplified model is more convenient and saves much more computation time. Though simple, the feas...
基金sponsored by the project No.50404001 from the National Natural Science Foundation of Chinathe National Key Fundamental Research & Development Project(Grant No.2007CB209601)+1 种基金the China National PetroleumCorporation Fundamental Research Program (Grant No.06A30102)the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation(Project No.2004035350)
文摘The electrophysical property of saturated rocks is very important for reservoir identification and evaluation. In this paper, the lattice Boltzmann method （LBM） was used to study the electrophysical property of rock saturated with fluid because of its advantages over conventional numerical approaches in handling complex pore geometry and boundary conditions. The digital core model was constructed through the accumulation of matrix grains based on their radius distribution obtained by the measurements of core samples. The flow of electrical current through the core model saturated with oil and water was simulated on the mesoscopic scale to reveal the non-Archie relationship between resistivity index and water saturation （I-Sw）. The results from LBM simulation and laboratory measurements demonstrated that the I-Sw relation in the range of low water saturation was generally not a straight line in the log-log coordinates as described by the Archie equation. We thus developed a new equation based on numerical simulation and physical experiments. This new equation was used to fit the data from laboratory core measurements and previously published data. Determination of fluid saturation and reservoir evaluation could be significantly improved by using the new equation.
基金provided by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(No.51074165)the NationalKey Basic Research Program of China(No.2013CB227905)the Qing-Lan Project of China Scholarship Council
文摘To analyze the overlying strata movement law of recovering room mining standing pillars with solid backfilling.Physical simulation experiments with sponge and wood as the backfilling simulation material were tested.The results show that:(i) The covering-rock mechanics of the overly strata comes from "two-arch structures + hinged girder + bend beam" to "backfilling material + hinged girder + bent beam" by increasing the fill ratio from 0%to 85%,the beginning of overlying strata movement appears later and the total duration of subsidence velocity increased from zero to the highest value increases.The trend of "single polarization" of the subsidence velocity curves becomes noticeable and the velocity variation trend becomes stable,(ii) The equiponderate aeolian sand was added to improve the anti-pressure ability of the loess,and the corresponding ground processing & transportation system was designed.
文摘With the combination of a new theoretical formula, physical simulation experiments, the technology of artificial neural network and database, an intelligent system for the prediction of sheet metal drawing capability is constructed for the first time. A modified criterion for sheet metal drawing capability is proposed in this paper, namely, the Technological Limiting Drawing Ratio, TLDR = f(R, n, s, t, F, μ,r_d,r_p…). Based on the studies of other scholars, a new formula is derived to predict the TLDR in this paper. Then a series of orthogonal physical simulation experiments are designed to investigate the effect of technological parameters on the TLDR, and the results are analyzed in the paper. Then the predicting system is constructed with the combination of the theoretical formula, orthogonal experiments, the technology of artifocial neural network and database. The predicted results show good agreements with experimental data, so it can be used to avoid the blindness in the selection of sheet metal before stamping. The system operates under the Windows operating system, and it supports the mechanism of Client/Server as well as Intranet, so the system has high engineering value.
文摘In the university physics teaching, the application of virtual simulation experiment technology can provide reliable technical support for teachers. If teachers only use the traditional oral teaching method, the teaching effect is not ideal. Because the physics subject contains many experiments, if students cannot watch the experiment process, students thinking ability and practical ability will be affected. However, under the constraints of teaching conditions, some physics experiments cannot be carried out. With the help of virtual simulation experiment technology, under the virtual simulation experiment, the simulation degree is high and the operation is relatively simple, also has the advantage of safety and risk-free, to compensate for the deficiency of the traditional teaching methods. To a certain extent, also can innovate teaching methods, students can fully observe the physical phenomenon operation process, help students to master the corresponding knowledge. This paper expounds the characteristics of virtual simulation experiment and the application principles of virtual simulation technology in university physics experiment teaching, and proposes the application strategy of this technology.
基金This work was supported financially by the Chinese Natural Science Foundation （51475090）, the Natural Science Foundation of Heilongjiang Province, China （E2017004）, New Century Excellent Talents of General Universities of Heilongjiang Province, China （1254-NCET-003）, the Youth Science and Technology Innovation Fund of Harbin City, China （2014RFQXJ142）, and the Science Backbone Project of the Northeast Agricultural University, China.
文摘The coefficient of rolling friction is an important physical property of a maize particle. It is difficult to obtain the value of this coefficient because of the irregular shape of maize particles. This paper describes an approach that combines the discrete-element method （DEM） and a physical test to determine the coefficient of rolling friction of irregularly shaped maize particles. A novel test platform was used to obtain the maize particle＇s coefficient of restitution and the coefficient of static friction. EDEM software （DEM- Solutions, United Kingdom） was used to simulate the accumulation of maize particles on particles and on a zincified plate. The golden-section method was used to determine the range of the maize particle＇s coefficient of roiling friction. A single-factor test was used to determine the relationship between the maize particle＇s coefficient of rolling friction and their angle of repose. The results obtained from the EDEM simulation were compared with physical test results to determine the intergranular coefficient of rolling friction and the coefficient of roiling friction between maize particles and the zincified plate. Our study demonstrates that the angle of repose increases linearly with the coefficient of rolling friction of maize particles. The effect of the coefficient of rolling friction on the particle movement is studied. The physical verification test indicates that the obtained rolling friction of the maize particles is accurate. The findings of this paper provide a theoretical basis for maize-processing machine design and a discrete-element studv of the motion of maize particles inside such machines.
基金Supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant Nos. 40275004 and 49575251.
文摘Based on the basic principles of atmospheric boundary layer and plant canopy micrometeorology, a forest underlying surface land surface physical process model and a two-dimensional atmospheric boundary layer numerical model are developed and numerical simulation experiments of biosphere and physiological processes of vegetation and soil volumetric water content have been done on land surface processes with local climate effect. The numerical simulation results are in good agreement with realistic observations, which can be used to obtain reasonable simulations for diurnal variations of canopy temperature, air temperature in canopy, ground surface temperature, and temporal and spatial distributions of potential temperature and vertical wind velocity as well as relative humidity and turbulence exchange coefficient over non-homogeneous underlying surfaces. It indicates that the model developed can be used to study the interaction between land surface process and atmospheric boundary layer over various underlying surfaces and can be extended to local climate studies. This work will settle a solid foundation for coupling climate models with the biosphere.
基金The work was supported by the National Science and Technology Major Project(2016ZX05062,2017ZX05037-001).
文摘The ultra-low porosity and permeability,as well as complex occurrence and transport state of shale reservoir make it possess special L-type production characteristic curve and complicated shale gas flow mechanism.To solve the difficulty of collecting complete production data due to short production time and operation discontinuity,a full-diameter core physical simulation experiment on the full lifecycle production process of shale gas well depletion is conducted with the purpose of obtaining many important production data including complete pressure and daily gas output in the simulated production process of shale gas well.The experimental results show the production characteristic from simulation is consistent with those from gas well.Based on the simulation data,the critical desorption pressure(12 MPa)of core,free gas production(3820.8 mL),adsorbed gas production(2151.2 mL),the proportion of the daily gas production between free and absorbed gas under different time and formation pressure,as well as the production time and final recovery rate corresponding to abandoned pressure,can be determined accurately.Numerical inversion is carried out to calculate the production performance curve of shale gas well and predict the development effect of gas well based on well testing and similarity analysis of the dimensionless time between core experiment and gas well production.Finally,the permeability and the fracturing effect(fracture network density)as the keys to the effective development of shale gas reservoirs are proposed.The permeability is the fundamental factor and the fracturing technology is the major means.
基金financial support from the National Natural Science Foundation of China(No.51978578)。
文摘In the course of the propagation of waves from the offshore to the nearshore zone, the wave may break due to the shoaling effect. Strong impact forces are observed when the breaking wave acts on the pier of the bridge. This impact force might not only change the dynamic load pattern on the pier but also cause strong structural vibration, which may threaten the driving and structural safety of the bridge. Many studies have been carried out to study the issues in the aspect of wave flume experiment, numerical simulation, calculation of breaking wave force, and random vibration response of the structure. Considering the studies of breaking wave load on bridge piers are lack of systematic summaries, this paper presents a comprehensive and up-to-date literature review of breaking wave research and practice related to bridges. Firstly, a brief introduction is given, which includes recent cases of bridge failures caused by breaking waves. Then, both scientific and technical studies are reviewed, categorized into four aspects: experimental study, numerical simulation, analytical calculation of breaking wave force, and the structural response under breaking wave. Finally, Discussion is provided on four emerging ideas to investigate breaking wave forces on the pier from both science and engineering perspectives.
