Tomographic particle image velocimetry was used to quantitatively visualize the three-dimensional co- herent structures in the logarithmic region of the turbulent boundary layer in a water tunnel. The Reynolds number ...Tomographic particle image velocimetry was used to quantitatively visualize the three-dimensional co- herent structures in the logarithmic region of the turbulent boundary layer in a water tunnel. The Reynolds number based on momentum thickness is Reo = 2 460. The in- stantaneous velocity fields give evidence of hairpin vortices aligned in the streamwise direction forming very long zones of low speed fluid, which is flanked on either side by high- speed ones. Statistical support for the existence of hairpins is given by conditional averaged eddy within an increasing spanwise width as the distance from the wall increases, and the main vortex characteristic in different wall-normal re- gions can be reflected by comparing the proportion of ejec- tion and its contribution to Reynolds stress with that of sweep event. The pre-multiplied power spectra and two-point cor- relations indicate the presence of large-scale motions in the boundary layer, which are consistent with what have been termed very large scale motions （VLSMs）. The three dimen-sional spatial correlations of three components of veloc- ity further indicate that the elongated low-speed and high- speed regions will be accompanied by a counter-rotating roll modes, as the statistical imprint of hairpin packet structures, all of which together make up the characteristic of coherent structures in the logarithmic region of the turbulent boundary layer （TBL）.展开更多
Unsteady three-dimensional flow phenomena must be investigated and well understood to be able to design devices to control such complex flow phenomena in order to achieve the desired behavior of the flow and to assess...Unsteady three-dimensional flow phenomena must be investigated and well understood to be able to design devices to control such complex flow phenomena in order to achieve the desired behavior of the flow and to assess their performance, even in harsh industrial environments. Experimental investigations for flow control research require measurement techniques capable to resolve the flow field with high spatial and temporal resolution to be able to perceive the relevant phenomena. Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV), providing access to the unsteady flow velocity field, is a measurement technique which is readily available commercially today. This explains why PIV is widely used for flow control research. A number of standard configurations exist, which, with increasing complexity, allow capturing flow velocity data instantaneously in geometrical arrangements extending from planes to volumes and in temporal arrangements extending from snapshots to temporarily well resolved data. With increasing complexity these PIV systems require advancing expertise of the user and growing investment costs. Using typical problems of flow control research, three different standard PIV systems will be characterized briefly. It is possible to upgrade a PIV system from a simple planar to a “high end” tomographic PIV system over a period of time, if sufficient PIV expertise can be built up and budget for additional investments becomes available.展开更多
The experimental investigation of unsteady complex flow fields in wind tunnels requires advanced measurement techniques. The most important of such image based measurement techniques are those for the measurement of p...The experimental investigation of unsteady complex flow fields in wind tunnels requires advanced measurement techniques. The most important of such image based measurement techniques are those for the measurement of planar flow velocity fields, planar pressure distribution, model location and deformation, model temperature and quantitative high speed flow visualization. The applications as carried out by DLR range from low speed flows to transonic flows, from high lift configurations to propellers and rotors, from wake vortex investigations in catapult facilities and water towing tanks to investigations of vortex break down phenomena on delta wings. The capability to use image based measurement techniques in transonic flows requires dedicated technical developments and experienced scientists due to the special environment of a transonic wind tunnel. In this paper an overview of the state-of-the art of the application of image based measurement techniques in transonic flows as performed by DLR＇s Institute of Aerodynamics and Flow Technology will be given.展开更多
An aerodynamic design method and corresponding codes are developed for three-dimensional multi lifting surfaces at transonic flow. It is based on the ＂iterative residual correction＂ concept that is successfully used...An aerodynamic design method and corresponding codes are developed for three-dimensional multi lifting surfaces at transonic flow. It is based on the ＂iterative residual correction＂ concept that is successfully used for transonic wing design and subsonic multi-lifting surface design. The up-wind scheme is introduced into governing equations of multi-lifting surface design method and automatically acted when supersonic flow appears on the surface. A series of interface codes are programmed, including a target-pressure modification tool. Using the improved inverse aerodynamic design code, TAU code and interface codes, the transonic multi-lifting aerodynamic design software system is founded. Two cases of canard-wing configuration have been performed to validate the method and codes. The results show that the convergence of analysis/design iteration is very good at higher speed transonic flow.展开更多
Some years ago the national CFD project MEGAFLOW was initiated in Germany to combine many of the CFD development activities from DLR, universities and aircraft industry. Its goal was the development and validation of ...Some years ago the national CFD project MEGAFLOW was initiated in Germany to combine many of the CFD development activities from DLR, universities and aircraft industry. Its goal was the development and validation of a dependable and efficient numerical tool for the aerodynamic simulation of complete aircraft which met the requirements of industrial implementations. The MEGAFLOW software system includes the block-structured Navier-Stokes code FLOWer and the unstructured Navier-Stokes code TAU. Both codes have reached a high level of maturity and they are intensively used by DLR and the German aerospace industry in the design process of new aircraft. Recently, the follow-on project MEGADESIGN and MEGAOPT were set up which focus on the development and enhancement of efficient numerical methods for shape design and optimization. This article highlights recent improvements of the software and its capability to predict viscous flows for complex industrial aircraft applications.展开更多
The flows behind the base of a generic rocket, at both hypersonic and subsonic flow conditions, are numerically studied. The main concerns are addressed to the evaluation of turbulence models and the using of grid ada...The flows behind the base of a generic rocket, at both hypersonic and subsonic flow conditions, are numerically studied. The main concerns are addressed to the evaluation of turbulence models and the using of grid adaptation techniques. The investigation focuses on two configurations, related to hypersonic and subsonic experiments. The applicability tests of different turbu- lence models are conducted on the level of two-equation models calculating the steady state solution of the Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes（RANS） equations. All used models, the original Wilcox k-co, the Menter shear-stress transport （SST） and the ex- plicit algebraic Reynolds stress model（EARSM） formulation, predict an asymmetric base flow in both cases caused by the support of the models. A comparison with preliminary experimental results indicates a preference for the SST and EARSM results over the results from the older k-co model. Sensitivity studies show no significant influence of the grid topology or the location of the laminar to turbulent transition on the base flow field, but a strong influence of even small angles of attack is reported from the related experiments.展开更多
The relationship between the off-axis angle of the recording setup and the quality of reconstructed particle images in digital off-axis holography is studied. The interference patterns of the same particles in the sam...The relationship between the off-axis angle of the recording setup and the quality of reconstructed particle images in digital off-axis holography is studied. The interference patterns of the same particles in the same plane are recorded at different off-axis angles in horizontal and vertical directions. By means of numerical wave propagation, the particle images are reconstructed so as to evaluate and compare their quality by the numbers of particles picked out and by the signal-to-noise ratio （SNR）. The results provide useful information about the relationship between the off-axis angle and the quality of the reconstructed image.展开更多
We introduce a framework for statistical inference of the closure coefficients using machine learning methods.The objective of this framework is to quantify the epistemic uncertainty associated with the closure model ...We introduce a framework for statistical inference of the closure coefficients using machine learning methods.The objective of this framework is to quantify the epistemic uncertainty associated with the closure model by using experimental data via Bayesian statistics.The framework is tailored towards cases for which a limited amount of experimental data is available.It consists of two components.First,by treating all latent variables(non-observed variables)in the model as stochastic variables,all sources of uncertainty of the probabilistic closure model are quantified by a fully Bayesian approach.The probabilistic model is defined to consist of the closure coefficients as parameters and other parameters incorporating noise.Then,the uncertainty associated with the closure coefficients is extracted from the overall uncertainty by considering the noise being zero.The overall uncertainty is rigorously evaluated by using Markov-Chain Monte Carlo sampling assisted by surrogate models.We apply the framework to the Spalart-Allmars one-equation turbulence model.Two test cases are considered,including an industrially relevant full aircraft model at transonic flow conditions,the Airbus XRF1.Eventually,we demonstrate that epistemic uncertainties in the closure coefficients result into uncertainties in flow quantities of interest which are prominent around,and downstream,of the shock occurring over the XRF1 wing.This data-driven approach could help to enhance the predictive capabilities of CFD in terms of reliable turbulence modeling at extremes of the flight envelope if measured data is available,which is important in the context of robust design and towards virtual aircraft certification.The plentiful amount of information about the uncertainties could also assist when it comes to estimating the influence of the measured data on the inferred model coefficients.Finally,the developed framework is flexible and can be applied to different test cases and to various turbulence models.展开更多
A simple analytical real-time capable model to account for fuselage-induced velocities at rotor blade elements is described at the example of the Bo105 fuselage.Data of the fuselage-induced flow fields in the volume o...A simple analytical real-time capable model to account for fuselage-induced velocities at rotor blade elements is described at the example of the Bo105 fuselage.Data of the fuselage-induced flow fields in the volume of rotor operation above the fuselage are first computed by a panel method in the range of angle of attack and sideslip of±90°.The model parameters are then estimated based on these data.The usefulness of the model in combinations of angle of attack and sideslip is demonstrated.展开更多
The unsteady transonic aerodynamics of a wing-body configuration is investigated by solving the Unsteady Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes equations closed with the full Reynolds Stress Model.This work presents the pred...The unsteady transonic aerodynamics of a wing-body configuration is investigated by solving the Unsteady Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes equations closed with the full Reynolds Stress Model.This work presents the prediction of flow field characteristics during deep shock-buffet penetration of a transport aircraftrepresentative geometry.Mach number of 0.85,and Reynolds number of 5 million based on the mean chord,are selected to reproduce experimental test conditions that serve as validating datasets.The results obtained give information about both surface and flow field shock-buffet dynamics.An unsteady shock front is observed on the suction side of the wing which gives birth to the so-called buffet cells.Flow field characteristics are dominated by the presence of lambda-shaped shocks and fully separated boundary layer over a significant part of the wing.展开更多
基金supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (10832001 and 10872145)the State Key Laboratory of Nonlinear Mechanics,Institute of Mechanics,Chinese Academy of Sciences
文摘Tomographic particle image velocimetry was used to quantitatively visualize the three-dimensional co- herent structures in the logarithmic region of the turbulent boundary layer in a water tunnel. The Reynolds number based on momentum thickness is Reo = 2 460. The in- stantaneous velocity fields give evidence of hairpin vortices aligned in the streamwise direction forming very long zones of low speed fluid, which is flanked on either side by high- speed ones. Statistical support for the existence of hairpins is given by conditional averaged eddy within an increasing spanwise width as the distance from the wall increases, and the main vortex characteristic in different wall-normal re- gions can be reflected by comparing the proportion of ejec- tion and its contribution to Reynolds stress with that of sweep event. The pre-multiplied power spectra and two-point cor- relations indicate the presence of large-scale motions in the boundary layer, which are consistent with what have been termed very large scale motions （VLSMs）. The three dimen-sional spatial correlations of three components of veloc- ity further indicate that the elongated low-speed and high- speed regions will be accompanied by a counter-rotating roll modes, as the statistical imprint of hairpin packet structures, all of which together make up the characteristic of coherent structures in the logarithmic region of the turbulent boundary layer （TBL）.
文摘Unsteady three-dimensional flow phenomena must be investigated and well understood to be able to design devices to control such complex flow phenomena in order to achieve the desired behavior of the flow and to assess their performance, even in harsh industrial environments. Experimental investigations for flow control research require measurement techniques capable to resolve the flow field with high spatial and temporal resolution to be able to perceive the relevant phenomena. Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV), providing access to the unsteady flow velocity field, is a measurement technique which is readily available commercially today. This explains why PIV is widely used for flow control research. A number of standard configurations exist, which, with increasing complexity, allow capturing flow velocity data instantaneously in geometrical arrangements extending from planes to volumes and in temporal arrangements extending from snapshots to temporarily well resolved data. With increasing complexity these PIV systems require advancing expertise of the user and growing investment costs. Using typical problems of flow control research, three different standard PIV systems will be characterized briefly. It is possible to upgrade a PIV system from a simple planar to a “high end” tomographic PIV system over a period of time, if sufficient PIV expertise can be built up and budget for additional investments becomes available.
文摘The experimental investigation of unsteady complex flow fields in wind tunnels requires advanced measurement techniques. The most important of such image based measurement techniques are those for the measurement of planar flow velocity fields, planar pressure distribution, model location and deformation, model temperature and quantitative high speed flow visualization. The applications as carried out by DLR range from low speed flows to transonic flows, from high lift configurations to propellers and rotors, from wake vortex investigations in catapult facilities and water towing tanks to investigations of vortex break down phenomena on delta wings. The capability to use image based measurement techniques in transonic flows requires dedicated technical developments and experienced scientists due to the special environment of a transonic wind tunnel. In this paper an overview of the state-of-the art of the application of image based measurement techniques in transonic flows as performed by DLR＇s Institute of Aerodynamics and Flow Technology will be given.
文摘An aerodynamic design method and corresponding codes are developed for three-dimensional multi lifting surfaces at transonic flow. It is based on the ＂iterative residual correction＂ concept that is successfully used for transonic wing design and subsonic multi-lifting surface design. The up-wind scheme is introduced into governing equations of multi-lifting surface design method and automatically acted when supersonic flow appears on the surface. A series of interface codes are programmed, including a target-pressure modification tool. Using the improved inverse aerodynamic design code, TAU code and interface codes, the transonic multi-lifting aerodynamic design software system is founded. Two cases of canard-wing configuration have been performed to validate the method and codes. The results show that the convergence of analysis/design iteration is very good at higher speed transonic flow.
文摘Some years ago the national CFD project MEGAFLOW was initiated in Germany to combine many of the CFD development activities from DLR, universities and aircraft industry. Its goal was the development and validation of a dependable and efficient numerical tool for the aerodynamic simulation of complete aircraft which met the requirements of industrial implementations. The MEGAFLOW software system includes the block-structured Navier-Stokes code FLOWer and the unstructured Navier-Stokes code TAU. Both codes have reached a high level of maturity and they are intensively used by DLR and the German aerospace industry in the design process of new aircraft. Recently, the follow-on project MEGADESIGN and MEGAOPT were set up which focus on the development and enhancement of efficient numerical methods for shape design and optimization. This article highlights recent improvements of the software and its capability to predict viscous flows for complex industrial aircraft applications.
基金German Research Foundation (Deutsche Forschungs-gemeinschaft-DFG) Sonderforschungsbereich Transregio 40
文摘The flows behind the base of a generic rocket, at both hypersonic and subsonic flow conditions, are numerically studied. The main concerns are addressed to the evaluation of turbulence models and the using of grid adaptation techniques. The investigation focuses on two configurations, related to hypersonic and subsonic experiments. The applicability tests of different turbu- lence models are conducted on the level of two-equation models calculating the steady state solution of the Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes（RANS） equations. All used models, the original Wilcox k-co, the Menter shear-stress transport （SST） and the ex- plicit algebraic Reynolds stress model（EARSM） formulation, predict an asymmetric base flow in both cases caused by the support of the models. A comparison with preliminary experimental results indicates a preference for the SST and EARSM results over the results from the older k-co model. Sensitivity studies show no significant influence of the grid topology or the location of the laminar to turbulent transition on the base flow field, but a strong influence of even small angles of attack is reported from the related experiments.
基金supported by an AIRNET grant from Airbus, DLR’s Institute of Aerodynamics and Flow Tech-nology in Gttingen and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No 10772017)
文摘The relationship between the off-axis angle of the recording setup and the quality of reconstructed particle images in digital off-axis holography is studied. The interference patterns of the same particles in the same plane are recorded at different off-axis angles in horizontal and vertical directions. By means of numerical wave propagation, the particle images are reconstructed so as to evaluate and compare their quality by the numbers of particles picked out and by the signal-to-noise ratio （SNR）. The results provide useful information about the relationship between the off-axis angle and the quality of the reconstructed image.
文摘We introduce a framework for statistical inference of the closure coefficients using machine learning methods.The objective of this framework is to quantify the epistemic uncertainty associated with the closure model by using experimental data via Bayesian statistics.The framework is tailored towards cases for which a limited amount of experimental data is available.It consists of two components.First,by treating all latent variables(non-observed variables)in the model as stochastic variables,all sources of uncertainty of the probabilistic closure model are quantified by a fully Bayesian approach.The probabilistic model is defined to consist of the closure coefficients as parameters and other parameters incorporating noise.Then,the uncertainty associated with the closure coefficients is extracted from the overall uncertainty by considering the noise being zero.The overall uncertainty is rigorously evaluated by using Markov-Chain Monte Carlo sampling assisted by surrogate models.We apply the framework to the Spalart-Allmars one-equation turbulence model.Two test cases are considered,including an industrially relevant full aircraft model at transonic flow conditions,the Airbus XRF1.Eventually,we demonstrate that epistemic uncertainties in the closure coefficients result into uncertainties in flow quantities of interest which are prominent around,and downstream,of the shock occurring over the XRF1 wing.This data-driven approach could help to enhance the predictive capabilities of CFD in terms of reliable turbulence modeling at extremes of the flight envelope if measured data is available,which is important in the context of robust design and towards virtual aircraft certification.The plentiful amount of information about the uncertainties could also assist when it comes to estimating the influence of the measured data on the inferred model coefficients.Finally,the developed framework is flexible and can be applied to different test cases and to various turbulence models.
文摘A simple analytical real-time capable model to account for fuselage-induced velocities at rotor blade elements is described at the example of the Bo105 fuselage.Data of the fuselage-induced flow fields in the volume of rotor operation above the fuselage are first computed by a panel method in the range of angle of attack and sideslip of±90°.The model parameters are then estimated based on these data.The usefulness of the model in combinations of angle of attack and sideslip is demonstrated.
基金The authors would like to acknowledge the University of Sheffield for funding of the project through a PhD studentship to the first author.This project has also been supported through an additional funding received via the Postgraduate Researcher Experience Programme(PREP)from the same institution.
文摘The unsteady transonic aerodynamics of a wing-body configuration is investigated by solving the Unsteady Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes equations closed with the full Reynolds Stress Model.This work presents the prediction of flow field characteristics during deep shock-buffet penetration of a transport aircraftrepresentative geometry.Mach number of 0.85,and Reynolds number of 5 million based on the mean chord,are selected to reproduce experimental test conditions that serve as validating datasets.The results obtained give information about both surface and flow field shock-buffet dynamics.An unsteady shock front is observed on the suction side of the wing which gives birth to the so-called buffet cells.Flow field characteristics are dominated by the presence of lambda-shaped shocks and fully separated boundary layer over a significant part of the wing.
